EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP MODEL
ABSTRACTS
From several decades, research about leadership has been directed toward exploration of information related to determinant of leadership effectiveness. One out of these thousands of researches is done by Locke et al. (2002) which based on their study wrote a book about leadership effectiveness. They then developed a leadership effectiveness model in organizational and business fields through qualitative approach. In this model there are four components must be fulfilled by a leader, i.e motive and traits; knowledge, skill, and ability; vision; and implementation of vision. This book provide a comprehensive perspective about the essence of leadership because its picture deeply and detail related to key components of leadership effectiveness. However, they not discuss about leader ability to affect follower at all. This limitation may be due to this study has carried out through qualitative approach. Despite this limitation, there is one interesting matter must be observed attentively. Locke et al. points out the importance of management of meaning must be possessed by a leader, so he/she can manage and define situations as a critical ability that can be used as a guidance of action by the followers.
Key words : Personal Attribution, Leadership Model, Leadership Trait Paradigm.
Preliminary
Leadership studies at the beginning of its development tends to be purely inductive occupies a central position in the literature of management and organizational behavior in recent decades. In general, research studies and theories of leadership development can be categorized into three important stages (Ogbonna and Harris, 2000). First, the initial stage of the study of leadership produces the nature of leadership theories (trait theories), which assumes that a person born to be a leader and that he has a personal trait or attribute that distinguishes it from those who are not leaders. Second, because the critique of the difficulty of classifying and validating the nature of the leader, then came the theories of leadership behavior (behavioraltheories). In this theory the emphasis which was originally directed at the nature of the leader was transferred to the behavior and style adopted by leaders. Thus, based on this theory, for organization can run effectively, there is an emphasis on a style of leadership
best (one best way of leading). Third, based on the assumption, that both theories of nature
theories of leadership and leadership behaviors have the same weakness, that ignores an important role of situational factors in determining the effectiveness of
leadership, then comes the situational leadership theories (situational theories). From
development of the theory of this latter group, then change the orientation of the 'one best way
leading 'to' context-sensitive leadership '.
If further explored, the third development of leadership theory can not be separated from the paradigm of leadership research. According to House and Aditya (1997), the general paradigm of leadership research can be divided into three categories: the paradigm of the nature of leadership (the leadership trait paradigm), the paradigm of leader behavior (the leader behavior paradigm) and a new paradigm which is also called charismatic new paradigm (the neocharismatic paradigm). According to Kuhn, 1970 (in Gioia and Pitre, 1990), the paradigm is a general perspective or the perspective that reflects the fundamental assumptions or beliefs about the nature of the organization. So a different research paradigm does not only distinguish theories, approaches, methods or analytical techniques used, but more than that, in it there is a difference of values and philosophy that is very fundamental.
The book, written by Locke, et al (1991), not related to the paradigm or theory, but with a model of leadership. The model is distinguished by the theory in terms of its role, which plays a role in explaining the theory, while the role model is to describe something (Cooper and Schindler, 2003). Furthermore, the model is defined as a picture of a system built to study some aspects of the system or learn the system in question as a whole, as described by both authors as follows.
Leadership studies at the beginning of its development tends to be purely inductive occupies a central position in the literature of management and organizational behavior in recent decades. In general, research studies and theories of leadership development can be categorized into three important stages (Ogbonna and Harris, 2000). First, the initial stage of the study of leadership produces the nature of leadership theories (trait theories), which assumes that a person born to be a leader and that he has a personal trait or attribute that distinguishes it from those who are not leaders. Second, because the critique of the difficulty of classifying and validating the nature of the leader, then came the theories of leadership behavior (behavioraltheories). In this theory the emphasis which was originally directed at the nature of the leader was transferred to the behavior and style adopted by leaders. Thus, based on this theory, for organization can run effectively, there is an emphasis on a style of leadership
best (one best way of leading). Third, based on the assumption, that both theories of nature
theories of leadership and leadership behaviors have the same weakness, that ignores an important role of situational factors in determining the effectiveness of
leadership, then comes the situational leadership theories (situational theories). From
development of the theory of this latter group, then change the orientation of the 'one best way
leading 'to' context-sensitive leadership '.
If further explored, the third development of leadership theory can not be separated from the paradigm of leadership research. According to House and Aditya (1997), the general paradigm of leadership research can be divided into three categories: the paradigm of the nature of leadership (the leadership trait paradigm), the paradigm of leader behavior (the leader behavior paradigm) and a new paradigm which is also called charismatic new paradigm (the neocharismatic paradigm). According to Kuhn, 1970 (in Gioia and Pitre, 1990), the paradigm is a general perspective or the perspective that reflects the fundamental assumptions or beliefs about the nature of the organization. So a different research paradigm does not only distinguish theories, approaches, methods or analytical techniques used, but more than that, in it there is a difference of values and philosophy that is very fundamental.
The book, written by Locke, et al (1991), not related to the paradigm or theory, but with a model of leadership. The model is distinguished by the theory in terms of its role, which plays a role in explaining the theory, while the role model is to describe something (Cooper and Schindler, 2003). Furthermore, the model is defined as a picture of a system built to study some aspects of the system or learn the system in question as a whole, as described by both authors as follows.
A model is not an explanation; it is only the structure and/or function of a second object or
process. A model is the result of taking the structure or function of one object or process and
using that as a model for the second. When the substance, either physical or conceptual, of the second object or process has been projected onto the first, a model has been constructed (hal. 55).
Of the three kinds of model proposed by Cooper and Schindler, (2003), the leadership model developed by Locke, et al (1991) can be grouped into eksplikatif model because by definition is a model that is built to extend the application of theory that has developed or to enhance understanding of the concepts contained in the relevant theory. Two other models are simulation models, ie models that describe the structural relationships of several concepts and seeks to reveal the relationship between these concepts, and descriptive models because it was built to describe the behavior of the elements in a system where existing theories, is considered not feasible.
The aim is to obtain consensus on the elements contained in the leadership as well as to dig up information about what things are causing a more effective leader than others. For further reference the author's name is written only by 'Locke' just remember the examination scripts for all parts of the book done by him, even though each piece is written by different authors. Book begins with an overview presentation of the parts that are considered important, then I will file comparison leadership model developed by Locke with several other leadership models and perspectives. Criticism regarding the weaknesses and benefits of the model will be discussed in the next section. Review the book ends with a conclusion that contain personal views about the contribution of this book to study development in the field of general management and organization theory in particular.
Overview
The book consists of six sections is about the model of leadership in the field of organization and business that builds on a qualitative study conducted in an integrated manner. Starting with a presentation on the nature of leadership, Locke saw in a positive, but realistic about the importance of leaders in public life in general and organizations in particular. By providing some dramatic examples of the success of several major corporate leader, he argues that the success of these leaders is a reflection of hundreds, even thousands of cases that occurred on leadership effectiveness organization with a smaller scale. Will However, with reference to an article, put forward that the three thousand more studies about leadership, many do not really relate it to the leader, but the supervisor. Although later admitted that in recent years these conditions change, where there is consistency of leadership effectiveness willingly, no longer solely about the effectiveness of the supervisor.
Leadership model developed is the result of several theories of leadership studies, among others, leadership traits theory and contingency theory of leadership. It is argued that to become an effective leader, not enough just to ownership of the properties of a leader, but the ability and skills necessary to formulate a vision and implement that vision into reality organization. Added, in some respects, the theory leadership contingency stating that in different circumstances required the application of the principles of leadership and leaders of different types, can be acceptable. In the model developed, there are also contingency although in a different sense. Contingency in this case refers more to the degree of importance which must be adjusted to agian or sub part of the model were compared with the core elements of its own. On the one hand, intelligence which is one element in the model for example, could be a lower degree of relevance to organizations with low technology level compared to the use of technology high. On the other hand, some elements in the model such as honesty, integrity, and creation and dissemination of the vision, appeared to have the same degree of importance for all leaders to can function effectively. In accordance with the title of his book, the development of a model (presented in appendix), is intended to show the essence of leadership process. The detailed model developed consists of four components, namely 1) the motives and nature, 2) knowledge, skills, and abilities; 3) vision; and 4) the application of vision. These four elements are said to be a major determinant that must be met to become an effective leader. In his explanation, Locke distinguishes between motifs with characteristics that must be owned by an effective leader. This difference lies in the pattern of action that can be observed, how to behave or how to think. Stated that the motive may underlie a particular trait, but there is no direct relationship between the two. Furthermore, a particular trait may reflect several motives, as well as a motive may underlie some properties. The motive is the desire that drives someone to act. Locke argues that there are some common motifs that are owned by
successful leaders. From the results of observation and study of several studies it appears that
ambition that is one element of encouragement, acts as the strongest predictor in determine the success of a leader. Because it is the responsibility of carrier highest in an organization tend to work in long hours and perform intensive activities, the nature enerjitik is also a requirement to be fulfilled by a
leader. In addition, another drive such as persistence and initiative is suspected to be the element
Another important achievement of leadership effectiveness. Underlined, that the leaders
successful must be willing menghikmatkan over power to his subordinates because of power
is the "currency" a leader who is the principal means of implementation of activities within the organization. In this case, given an idea of the use of powers between effective leader with an ineffective leader. Effective leaders use socialized power motive, no motive power personalized. In type
The first leader, the power is used as a means to achieve goals desirable or vision defined, rather than to dominate subordinates, such as case in which the second type. Nature, in the proposed model are grouped into two core properties and the nature of bonuses. In detail, explained that the very nature of which must be owned by an effective leader is self-confidence, honesty, and integrity. Self-confidence plays an important role in decision-making, while honesty and integrity together will be observed
form the foundation of the relationship of trust between leaders with subordinates. It is not enough
to have high confidence, also emphasized that leaders must be able to convince his subordinates to be able to perceive the confidence he had. Originality, flexibility and charisma is classified as a bonus character in the model of leadership based on the consideration that only a few studies of leadership that has been done to show positive results. In accordance with the name, the third of this nature often have a role but is not considered essential. Karisma for example, is more widely regarded as one expression of the trait that determines the effectiveness of leadership. In the third part discussed about knowledge, skills, and abilities that must be owned by a leader. Beginning with an explanation
about the importance of knowledge and technology expertise, discussions continued with the role of knowledge about the organization and the industry as a facilitator of success of a leader. Ideally, a leader has the knowledge and extensive information about the organization, industry and business world to deliver for his organization to success. Presentation of several case examples provide a clear picture related to the failure of some leaders of the organization caused by the limited knowledge and experience about the industry and the business world.
The role of skills in effective leadership presented by Locke in a solid albeit with classical nuances. Interpersonal skills including listening skills, communicate verbally, the development of networking, and management of conflict associated with failure and success of a leader. Referring to the opinion of Bennis and Nanus (1985), Locke emphasizes the role of listening skills and communicate orally
in the management of meaning in the organization. Further elaborated, that is a must for a leader to have conflict management skills and ability to build a network in an effort to maintain relationships with subordinates, peers, and other external parties. Art in involving themselves with subordinates categorized as management skills. It is said that the decision-making and problem solving is a skill that is closely related to cognitive abilities of a leader. The quality of decisions and solutions solving the problem depends on the level of intelligence of a leader because of the capital This he can dig up the roots of the problems faced and achieve optimization in the decision.
Based on the argument that the motives, character, knowledge, skills and abilities will not be meaningful without the development of a vision, then in the next two sections discuss the vision and implementation. Expressly stated that its vision to provide the breath and the feelings of members of the organization that they are intertwined lives and work and move towards goals formally agreed. Vision is what memedomani organization with all the activities along iringannya for the future so that in the long term do not need to be changed or replaced its existence. Is the responsibility of leaders to formulate a vision startejik through the collection and processing and evaluating information and pengkonseptualisasian vision.
Comparison with models and Other Leadership Perspective
Until it's been thousands of studies done related to leadership. Of all research is largely carried out through research on the attribution of personal or nature of the leader. As stated by Judge, et al (2002), the approach and the study of leadership, usually or perhaps always, done through the study of the nature of the leader. Added another, almost all of the study aims to reveal the relationship with the leader qualities of leadership effectiveness. Qualitative study conducted by Judge and Bono of the ten models and perspectives about the nature and personal attribution leaders indicated that there are overlapping nature of the identified leaders of the ten studies reviewed. It appears that self-confidence,
appears in almost all study materials, while the integrity, conformity, and social skills only seen in some studies. Interestingly, all the study materials that gave rise to the confidence shown that these variables are strongly correlated with leadership effectiveness. This is logical because the confidence is usually closely related to other properties. Locke also argued that a leader who has a sense of confidence generally have emotional stability, a high level of adjustment and is not vulnerable to stress. This property moreover, will be very big role when a leader who has failed.
Accordingly, Locke proposed the following argument.
The aim is to obtain consensus on the elements contained in the leadership as well as to dig up information about what things are causing a more effective leader than others. For further reference the author's name is written only by 'Locke' just remember the examination scripts for all parts of the book done by him, even though each piece is written by different authors. Book begins with an overview presentation of the parts that are considered important, then I will file comparison leadership model developed by Locke with several other leadership models and perspectives. Criticism regarding the weaknesses and benefits of the model will be discussed in the next section. Review the book ends with a conclusion that contain personal views about the contribution of this book to study development in the field of general management and organization theory in particular.
Overview
The book consists of six sections is about the model of leadership in the field of organization and business that builds on a qualitative study conducted in an integrated manner. Starting with a presentation on the nature of leadership, Locke saw in a positive, but realistic about the importance of leaders in public life in general and organizations in particular. By providing some dramatic examples of the success of several major corporate leader, he argues that the success of these leaders is a reflection of hundreds, even thousands of cases that occurred on leadership effectiveness organization with a smaller scale. Will However, with reference to an article, put forward that the three thousand more studies about leadership, many do not really relate it to the leader, but the supervisor. Although later admitted that in recent years these conditions change, where there is consistency of leadership effectiveness willingly, no longer solely about the effectiveness of the supervisor.
Leadership model developed is the result of several theories of leadership studies, among others, leadership traits theory and contingency theory of leadership. It is argued that to become an effective leader, not enough just to ownership of the properties of a leader, but the ability and skills necessary to formulate a vision and implement that vision into reality organization. Added, in some respects, the theory leadership contingency stating that in different circumstances required the application of the principles of leadership and leaders of different types, can be acceptable. In the model developed, there are also contingency although in a different sense. Contingency in this case refers more to the degree of importance which must be adjusted to agian or sub part of the model were compared with the core elements of its own. On the one hand, intelligence which is one element in the model for example, could be a lower degree of relevance to organizations with low technology level compared to the use of technology high. On the other hand, some elements in the model such as honesty, integrity, and creation and dissemination of the vision, appeared to have the same degree of importance for all leaders to can function effectively. In accordance with the title of his book, the development of a model (presented in appendix), is intended to show the essence of leadership process. The detailed model developed consists of four components, namely 1) the motives and nature, 2) knowledge, skills, and abilities; 3) vision; and 4) the application of vision. These four elements are said to be a major determinant that must be met to become an effective leader. In his explanation, Locke distinguishes between motifs with characteristics that must be owned by an effective leader. This difference lies in the pattern of action that can be observed, how to behave or how to think. Stated that the motive may underlie a particular trait, but there is no direct relationship between the two. Furthermore, a particular trait may reflect several motives, as well as a motive may underlie some properties. The motive is the desire that drives someone to act. Locke argues that there are some common motifs that are owned by
successful leaders. From the results of observation and study of several studies it appears that
ambition that is one element of encouragement, acts as the strongest predictor in determine the success of a leader. Because it is the responsibility of carrier highest in an organization tend to work in long hours and perform intensive activities, the nature enerjitik is also a requirement to be fulfilled by a
leader. In addition, another drive such as persistence and initiative is suspected to be the element
Another important achievement of leadership effectiveness. Underlined, that the leaders
successful must be willing menghikmatkan over power to his subordinates because of power
is the "currency" a leader who is the principal means of implementation of activities within the organization. In this case, given an idea of the use of powers between effective leader with an ineffective leader. Effective leaders use socialized power motive, no motive power personalized. In type
The first leader, the power is used as a means to achieve goals desirable or vision defined, rather than to dominate subordinates, such as case in which the second type. Nature, in the proposed model are grouped into two core properties and the nature of bonuses. In detail, explained that the very nature of which must be owned by an effective leader is self-confidence, honesty, and integrity. Self-confidence plays an important role in decision-making, while honesty and integrity together will be observed
form the foundation of the relationship of trust between leaders with subordinates. It is not enough
to have high confidence, also emphasized that leaders must be able to convince his subordinates to be able to perceive the confidence he had. Originality, flexibility and charisma is classified as a bonus character in the model of leadership based on the consideration that only a few studies of leadership that has been done to show positive results. In accordance with the name, the third of this nature often have a role but is not considered essential. Karisma for example, is more widely regarded as one expression of the trait that determines the effectiveness of leadership. In the third part discussed about knowledge, skills, and abilities that must be owned by a leader. Beginning with an explanation
about the importance of knowledge and technology expertise, discussions continued with the role of knowledge about the organization and the industry as a facilitator of success of a leader. Ideally, a leader has the knowledge and extensive information about the organization, industry and business world to deliver for his organization to success. Presentation of several case examples provide a clear picture related to the failure of some leaders of the organization caused by the limited knowledge and experience about the industry and the business world.
The role of skills in effective leadership presented by Locke in a solid albeit with classical nuances. Interpersonal skills including listening skills, communicate verbally, the development of networking, and management of conflict associated with failure and success of a leader. Referring to the opinion of Bennis and Nanus (1985), Locke emphasizes the role of listening skills and communicate orally
in the management of meaning in the organization. Further elaborated, that is a must for a leader to have conflict management skills and ability to build a network in an effort to maintain relationships with subordinates, peers, and other external parties. Art in involving themselves with subordinates categorized as management skills. It is said that the decision-making and problem solving is a skill that is closely related to cognitive abilities of a leader. The quality of decisions and solutions solving the problem depends on the level of intelligence of a leader because of the capital This he can dig up the roots of the problems faced and achieve optimization in the decision.
Based on the argument that the motives, character, knowledge, skills and abilities will not be meaningful without the development of a vision, then in the next two sections discuss the vision and implementation. Expressly stated that its vision to provide the breath and the feelings of members of the organization that they are intertwined lives and work and move towards goals formally agreed. Vision is what memedomani organization with all the activities along iringannya for the future so that in the long term do not need to be changed or replaced its existence. Is the responsibility of leaders to formulate a vision startejik through the collection and processing and evaluating information and pengkonseptualisasian vision.
Comparison with models and Other Leadership Perspective
Until it's been thousands of studies done related to leadership. Of all research is largely carried out through research on the attribution of personal or nature of the leader. As stated by Judge, et al (2002), the approach and the study of leadership, usually or perhaps always, done through the study of the nature of the leader. Added another, almost all of the study aims to reveal the relationship with the leader qualities of leadership effectiveness. Qualitative study conducted by Judge and Bono of the ten models and perspectives about the nature and personal attribution leaders indicated that there are overlapping nature of the identified leaders of the ten studies reviewed. It appears that self-confidence,
appears in almost all study materials, while the integrity, conformity, and social skills only seen in some studies. Interestingly, all the study materials that gave rise to the confidence shown that these variables are strongly correlated with leadership effectiveness. This is logical because the confidence is usually closely related to other properties. Locke also argued that a leader who has a sense of confidence generally have emotional stability, a high level of adjustment and is not vulnerable to stress. This property moreover, will be very big role when a leader who has failed.
Accordingly, Locke proposed the following argument.
Even when a decision a leader makes turns out to
be a poor one, the self-confident leader can use it as
a learning opportunity by admitting the mistake
and can often build trust in response......On the
other hand, “derailed” manager were often more
defensive about their failures and tried to cover up
their mistakes rather than admit them (hal 27).
The study conducted Stogdill (in Yulk2, 1989), consistent with Judge and Bono and studies with the model proposed by Locke, although there are differences in some respects. Based on a review of 163 studies and perspectives on the nature and leadership skills, Stogdill found that some traits and skills that the same appears in some study materials and was associated with leadership effectiveness. Self-confidence, adaptability, achievement orientation towards results, enerjitik, intelligence, and creativity was found to be the nature and skills possessed by successful leaders. Unlike the case with the model proposed by Locke, Stogdill classify creativity into skill groups, while Locke As for enerjitik and orientation towards the achievement of results, which by Stogdill grouped into nature, by Locke in fact be categorized into the leadership motive. This happens because basically the operationalization of the property nature / attribution leadership is relatively difficult, in addition because it often depends on the situation with which the leaders carry out their functions, as well as attribution and the behavior is essentially psychological, is not an aspect of the organization (House and Aditya, 1997; Judge and Bono, 1998). Yulk1 (1989) in a study of several theories and research leadership propose a model that represents an integrated conceptual framework. Somewhat different from the studies discussed earlier, he used the term to represent the nature of the characteristics and skills that must be owned by an effective leader. Similar to previous studies, self-confidence again appears to be a characteristic of a leader to be reckoned with existence. In contrast to Locke's model, which classifies skills become personal and management skills, Yulk categorize it into three major groups namely technical skills, conceptual, and interpersonal, although acknowledged that the level of importance these three types of skills are relatively distinct from one situation to another.
Criticism
This book presents a comprehensive perspective on the essence of leadership because it provides in-depth and detailed description of the key components that distinguish an effective leader with an ineffective. But very disappointing to discover that there is a waiver of the elements that it is very important to be included in the model. The model proposed by Locke aims to provide information on the ownership of the elements that lead to a more effective leader than others. Unfortunately, the discussion about the effectiveness of leadership which, according to Judge, et al (2002) refers to the ability of leaders to influence subordinates, did not get a touch at all. Not explained the criteria used to determine whether an effective leader or not. Although the model was developed based on qualitative studies, at least the criteria of leadership effectiveness can be presented through a qualitative determination of output as well. Hogan, et al (in Judge, et al, 2002), states that the criteria of leadership can be conceptualized and measured in two ways, namely the emergence of leadership (leadership Emergence) and the effectiveness of leadership (leadership effectivenes). The emergence of leadership refers to the extent to which individuals viewed as leaders by others, especially those who only have limited information about the performance of the individuals concerned. Conversely, the effectiveness of leadership refers to the performance leader in influence and guide the activities undertaken throughout the organization in order to achieve its intended purpose. Further said that the effectiveness
ideally be measured from the effectiveness of leadership teams, groups, or organizations, but in practice
generally determined by the value given by colleagues or subordinates. Although measurements of this kind often lead to bias, the fact shows that the assessment of leadership effectiveness in line with objective pegukuran group performance. Variations in definitions of leadership tend to cause the difference in conceptions of leadership effectiveness. One important difference lies in the type of consequence or output is selected as the criterion of effectiveness (Yulk2, 1989). Various qualitative outputs include group performance, group goals, group survival, growth groups, the readiness group, the capacity of groups in the face of crisis, the satisfaction of subordinates towards the leader, and
subordinate commitment to the objectives of the group. Even Stoker, et al (2001) include the prevalence of
"Burn out" as an output variable kualititatif to measure the effectiveness of leadership. If
in an organization found in the prevalence of 'burn out "relatively high, then that is wrong
a sign of ineffective leadership. In addition to qualitative assessment, the size
leadership effectiveness can also be determined quantitatively (Yulk2, 1989; Judge, et al, 2002).
Included in the quantitative output measure is the profit growth, profit margins,
increased sales, market share growth, return on investment, and cost per unit of product. Any type of measurement that will be chosen should be constituted with due vigilance in the organization are often the criteria of leadership effectiveness depends on the goals and values adopted by the parties conducting the assessment. Parties who have a higher authority (eg the board of commissioners or its shareholders) will establish the measurement criteria that are likely different from those demanded by the subordinates of the leader concerned. In the analysis, Locke emphasized that
to become an effective leader, the four components proposed in the model must be met. Explanation of the model from one section to another done in a structured and organized. However, the terms manager and leader are used inconsistently in both the discussion of models and case examples are given. In fact in one part of his book, he strongly emphasized the difference between the main functions of a manager with the leader. The assertion was later to become blurred when Locke cites the opinion of several experts about the vagueness demarcation line between the leader with the manager. Until the end of the discussion on this topic, the author does not specify the position you want to take. So no surprise when the term is often found in leaders and managers who are used interchangeably or even simultaneously, for example relating to
discussion of management information, such as the following quotation:
This book presents a comprehensive perspective on the essence of leadership because it provides in-depth and detailed description of the key components that distinguish an effective leader with an ineffective. But very disappointing to discover that there is a waiver of the elements that it is very important to be included in the model. The model proposed by Locke aims to provide information on the ownership of the elements that lead to a more effective leader than others. Unfortunately, the discussion about the effectiveness of leadership which, according to Judge, et al (2002) refers to the ability of leaders to influence subordinates, did not get a touch at all. Not explained the criteria used to determine whether an effective leader or not. Although the model was developed based on qualitative studies, at least the criteria of leadership effectiveness can be presented through a qualitative determination of output as well. Hogan, et al (in Judge, et al, 2002), states that the criteria of leadership can be conceptualized and measured in two ways, namely the emergence of leadership (leadership Emergence) and the effectiveness of leadership (leadership effectivenes). The emergence of leadership refers to the extent to which individuals viewed as leaders by others, especially those who only have limited information about the performance of the individuals concerned. Conversely, the effectiveness of leadership refers to the performance leader in influence and guide the activities undertaken throughout the organization in order to achieve its intended purpose. Further said that the effectiveness
ideally be measured from the effectiveness of leadership teams, groups, or organizations, but in practice
generally determined by the value given by colleagues or subordinates. Although measurements of this kind often lead to bias, the fact shows that the assessment of leadership effectiveness in line with objective pegukuran group performance. Variations in definitions of leadership tend to cause the difference in conceptions of leadership effectiveness. One important difference lies in the type of consequence or output is selected as the criterion of effectiveness (Yulk2, 1989). Various qualitative outputs include group performance, group goals, group survival, growth groups, the readiness group, the capacity of groups in the face of crisis, the satisfaction of subordinates towards the leader, and
subordinate commitment to the objectives of the group. Even Stoker, et al (2001) include the prevalence of
"Burn out" as an output variable kualititatif to measure the effectiveness of leadership. If
in an organization found in the prevalence of 'burn out "relatively high, then that is wrong
a sign of ineffective leadership. In addition to qualitative assessment, the size
leadership effectiveness can also be determined quantitatively (Yulk2, 1989; Judge, et al, 2002).
Included in the quantitative output measure is the profit growth, profit margins,
increased sales, market share growth, return on investment, and cost per unit of product. Any type of measurement that will be chosen should be constituted with due vigilance in the organization are often the criteria of leadership effectiveness depends on the goals and values adopted by the parties conducting the assessment. Parties who have a higher authority (eg the board of commissioners or its shareholders) will establish the measurement criteria that are likely different from those demanded by the subordinates of the leader concerned. In the analysis, Locke emphasized that
to become an effective leader, the four components proposed in the model must be met. Explanation of the model from one section to another done in a structured and organized. However, the terms manager and leader are used inconsistently in both the discussion of models and case examples are given. In fact in one part of his book, he strongly emphasized the difference between the main functions of a manager with the leader. The assertion was later to become blurred when Locke cites the opinion of several experts about the vagueness demarcation line between the leader with the manager. Until the end of the discussion on this topic, the author does not specify the position you want to take. So no surprise when the term is often found in leaders and managers who are used interchangeably or even simultaneously, for example relating to
discussion of management information, such as the following quotation:
A leader can receive a large amount of
information........that already in place. Company
record can give a manager internal-performance
information about what is not working or what can
be improved. Kouzes and Posner (1987) advise
managers to go find something to fix rather than
wait for problems to develop from whatever is in
functional disrepair (hal 91).
This confusion would not have happened if Locke provides confirmation of the consistency of terms that will be used, as some experts are also aware that there is still controversy on the difference between a manager and leader (Yulk1, 1989). A person can be a leader without a manager, and can be a manager without leading, because in some ways a manager might not have a subordinate at all. Added, that no party managers equate with the leader, but the degree tumpangtindihnya until now still be
debate.
Although mentioned in passing, I agree with the opinion of Locke who emphasized that the success of the management of meaning (management of meaning) is what an leader is determined by his ability to communicate (p. 42). Citing opinion Bennis and Nanus (1985), stated that the management of meaning, through the mastery of communication techniques, it is inseparable from effective leadership.
In fact, the reality of organizational life is happening is actually the same, but can be interpreted differently because defined differently by the leader. In this case, reality is seen as subjective because it depends on the interpretation of each party who gave the assessment.
Reality is formed by all parties in the organization, but dominance is in the leader's shoulder (Smircich and Morgan, 1982). Means that effective leaders are leaders who can manage and define the situation such that his subordinates "surrender" in the sense that form and in turn will serve as the basic act. One of the important indicators in the achievement of this condition is the expertise of leaders in communicating orally. The organization is not uncommon leader who has a weakness in conveying an idea or attitude to his subordinates, though he considered brilliant in another field. As a result he is unable to define the meaning and convey the attitude of the members of the organization in accordance with her wishes. If related to inter-cultural conditions, interesting to note that in certain countries in oral communication skills turned out to look not become an essential element of leadership effectiveness. This can be seen from the description of the results of studies conducted by Smith, et al, 1989 (in the House and Aditya, 1997) associated with generic leadership functions. Different countries, different ways a leader in delivering ideas and his attitude to subordinates. In democratic countries like the United States leaders tend to be consultative and participatory against subordinates so that everything delivered orally with face-to-face basis. This condition of course requires communication skills to a leader as a formal leader in the organization. This is important because if it fails then he can be considered a failure as a leader. As noted by Smirsich and Morgan (1982), if a leader fails in defining the meaning, but not impossible informal leaders will emerge who can endanger the survival of the organization. Instead, the chosen mode of communication by the leaders of the organization in Japan with their subordinates led to the submission of written communication through memos or notes. This is done to anticipate the occurrence of direct confrontation, especially if there is suspected the possibility of disagreement between the leader with his subordinates. In the last section of his book, Locke's attempt to provide a snapshot of the application of leadership in achieving quality through the delivery of the results of a case study based on research for 6 consecutive years of 9 and 7 companies producing air conditioner in the United States and Japan. In my opinion, the results of a study conducted by David Garvin of Harvard Business School's enough surprising because it turns out in almost all matters relating to quality, it appears that companies in the United States far behind compared to those in Japan.
In terms of training for example, illustrated that Japanese companies applied for the program
6 months, whereas in the United States held the program in just a few hours / days. In the one hand, placing priority on Japanese companies placed on improving quality. On the other hand, for United States companies, achieving production schedules occupy priority. Noted also that the total quality control and the formation of clusters.
Quality control is a common practice applied in Japanese companies and sometimes a factor that contributes to the achievement of quality. From proposed many differences, the most striking are the results showing that companies with the highest quality in the United States turned out to achieve the average quality over low compared to the companies included in the worst quality in Japan.
In my opinion, this picture is not representative at all considering the number of samples used is very small and represents only one type of company, although studies conducted intensive in the relatively long period of time. Locke should be careful in choosing case studies presented. Moreover, in not responsible then he concludes that achieving quality is nothing but an outcome of effective leadership, whereas in the early submission of the case he clearly recognizes that the study was not focused on the study of leadership. In the model proposed, Locke emphasizes the role of strategic vision and implemented to achieve effective leadership. In my opinion, herein lies the excellence model proposed Locke, because the complete presents the essential elements of the development vision and impelementasinya stages. Implementation of the organizational vision is a key factor that determines the success of a leader. It is argued that the procedures and policies adopted in the framework of the implementation of the vision are grouped into six categories: 1) structuring the organization, 2) selection, training and acculturation; 3) providing motivation to employees; 4) information management, 5) team building; and 6) development changes. The advantage is reinforced by a very comprehensive discussion on the four and five of his book. Toughest challenge for a leader, according to Locke, is to instill a vision that has been developed to the members of the organization. Therefore pemimpinlah obligation to revive and energize the vision to become the spirit of all members of the organization. This is in line with the opinion of several experts, particularly relating to leadership
transformational, that the leadership role in growing commitment to the vision created can be an inspiration and soul of the organization and everyone involved in it (House and Aditya, 1997; Lim and Ployhart, 2004). In addition, Locke gives a balanced view that in order to arouse the enthusiasm of members, advance their own leaders should have a positive attitude and enthusiasm towards the vision set forth. As quoted from the statement of Kouzes and Posner (1987) follows this.
debate.
Although mentioned in passing, I agree with the opinion of Locke who emphasized that the success of the management of meaning (management of meaning) is what an leader is determined by his ability to communicate (p. 42). Citing opinion Bennis and Nanus (1985), stated that the management of meaning, through the mastery of communication techniques, it is inseparable from effective leadership.
In fact, the reality of organizational life is happening is actually the same, but can be interpreted differently because defined differently by the leader. In this case, reality is seen as subjective because it depends on the interpretation of each party who gave the assessment.
Reality is formed by all parties in the organization, but dominance is in the leader's shoulder (Smircich and Morgan, 1982). Means that effective leaders are leaders who can manage and define the situation such that his subordinates "surrender" in the sense that form and in turn will serve as the basic act. One of the important indicators in the achievement of this condition is the expertise of leaders in communicating orally. The organization is not uncommon leader who has a weakness in conveying an idea or attitude to his subordinates, though he considered brilliant in another field. As a result he is unable to define the meaning and convey the attitude of the members of the organization in accordance with her wishes. If related to inter-cultural conditions, interesting to note that in certain countries in oral communication skills turned out to look not become an essential element of leadership effectiveness. This can be seen from the description of the results of studies conducted by Smith, et al, 1989 (in the House and Aditya, 1997) associated with generic leadership functions. Different countries, different ways a leader in delivering ideas and his attitude to subordinates. In democratic countries like the United States leaders tend to be consultative and participatory against subordinates so that everything delivered orally with face-to-face basis. This condition of course requires communication skills to a leader as a formal leader in the organization. This is important because if it fails then he can be considered a failure as a leader. As noted by Smirsich and Morgan (1982), if a leader fails in defining the meaning, but not impossible informal leaders will emerge who can endanger the survival of the organization. Instead, the chosen mode of communication by the leaders of the organization in Japan with their subordinates led to the submission of written communication through memos or notes. This is done to anticipate the occurrence of direct confrontation, especially if there is suspected the possibility of disagreement between the leader with his subordinates. In the last section of his book, Locke's attempt to provide a snapshot of the application of leadership in achieving quality through the delivery of the results of a case study based on research for 6 consecutive years of 9 and 7 companies producing air conditioner in the United States and Japan. In my opinion, the results of a study conducted by David Garvin of Harvard Business School's enough surprising because it turns out in almost all matters relating to quality, it appears that companies in the United States far behind compared to those in Japan.
In terms of training for example, illustrated that Japanese companies applied for the program
6 months, whereas in the United States held the program in just a few hours / days. In the one hand, placing priority on Japanese companies placed on improving quality. On the other hand, for United States companies, achieving production schedules occupy priority. Noted also that the total quality control and the formation of clusters.
Quality control is a common practice applied in Japanese companies and sometimes a factor that contributes to the achievement of quality. From proposed many differences, the most striking are the results showing that companies with the highest quality in the United States turned out to achieve the average quality over low compared to the companies included in the worst quality in Japan.
In my opinion, this picture is not representative at all considering the number of samples used is very small and represents only one type of company, although studies conducted intensive in the relatively long period of time. Locke should be careful in choosing case studies presented. Moreover, in not responsible then he concludes that achieving quality is nothing but an outcome of effective leadership, whereas in the early submission of the case he clearly recognizes that the study was not focused on the study of leadership. In the model proposed, Locke emphasizes the role of strategic vision and implemented to achieve effective leadership. In my opinion, herein lies the excellence model proposed Locke, because the complete presents the essential elements of the development vision and impelementasinya stages. Implementation of the organizational vision is a key factor that determines the success of a leader. It is argued that the procedures and policies adopted in the framework of the implementation of the vision are grouped into six categories: 1) structuring the organization, 2) selection, training and acculturation; 3) providing motivation to employees; 4) information management, 5) team building; and 6) development changes. The advantage is reinforced by a very comprehensive discussion on the four and five of his book. Toughest challenge for a leader, according to Locke, is to instill a vision that has been developed to the members of the organization. Therefore pemimpinlah obligation to revive and energize the vision to become the spirit of all members of the organization. This is in line with the opinion of several experts, particularly relating to leadership
transformational, that the leadership role in growing commitment to the vision created can be an inspiration and soul of the organization and everyone involved in it (House and Aditya, 1997; Lim and Ployhart, 2004). In addition, Locke gives a balanced view that in order to arouse the enthusiasm of members, advance their own leaders should have a positive attitude and enthusiasm towards the vision set forth. As quoted from the statement of Kouzes and Posner (1987) follows this.
Leaders cannot ignite the flame of passion in their
followers if they themselves do not express
enthusiasm for the compelling vision of the group
(hal. 58).
Locke foresight in placing empowerment as the key to success in achieving the vision set also need to be appreciated. Explicitly he menguraikanbahwa at every step implementation of a vision, a leader must put empowerment as a priority. In training for example, explained that effective leaders empower their subordinates with how to assist the development of skills, abilities and knowledge. Similar with it, developing confidence and devolution of delegations, which are elements motivation is the means used to empower subordinates. Furthermore, management information through the dissemination of information to all parts of the organization is useful especially for empower followers to improve performance through the provision of resources required. In guaranteeing the effectiveness of leadership and organizational survival, empowerment is very big role because, according to Stoker, et al (2001) would correlate with innovative behavior that ultimately affect the effectiveness and innovative capacity of organization. Finally, there is no doubt that changes in business environment characterized
with foreign competition growing sharply, increasing demand for quality products high, and changes in economic orientation from industry towards services, requires the organization to adopt a different management approach that is employee empowerment (Argyris, 1988; and Arnold, et al, 2000).
Knot
Leadership model proposed by Locke presents a comprehensive perspective on the essence an effective leadership. Straightly he proposed model as well as providing a description about four key elements that can distinguish an effective leader with an ineffective. Apart from the neglect of the criteria of leadership effectiveness actually an essential element in the model, Locke managed to build a model that very substantive for the development of leadership theory. I agree with Locke's statement that
proposed model can not be proven scientifically developed considering basically just based on some qualitative studies. However, in my view this book significant contribution to the development of science because it provides a rich picture of the phenomenon that will never cease to be discussed and always a hot topic in the study of organizational theory, the "leadership".
REFERENCES
with foreign competition growing sharply, increasing demand for quality products high, and changes in economic orientation from industry towards services, requires the organization to adopt a different management approach that is employee empowerment (Argyris, 1988; and Arnold, et al, 2000).
Knot
Leadership model proposed by Locke presents a comprehensive perspective on the essence an effective leadership. Straightly he proposed model as well as providing a description about four key elements that can distinguish an effective leader with an ineffective. Apart from the neglect of the criteria of leadership effectiveness actually an essential element in the model, Locke managed to build a model that very substantive for the development of leadership theory. I agree with Locke's statement that
proposed model can not be proven scientifically developed considering basically just based on some qualitative studies. However, in my view this book significant contribution to the development of science because it provides a rich picture of the phenomenon that will never cease to be discussed and always a hot topic in the study of organizational theory, the "leadership".
REFERENCES
Argyris, C. (1998). Empowerment : the emperor’s new clothes. Harvard Business Review, May- June
1998: 98-119
Arnold, J.A., Arad, S., Rhoades, J.A., and Drasgow, F. (2000). The empowering leadership questionaire : the construction and validation of a new scale measuring leader behaviors. Journal of Organizational
Behavior, 21: 249-269. Cooper, D.R., and Schindler, P.S. (2003) Business Research Methods. Boston, Mc. Graw-Hill. Gioia, D.A., and Pitre, E. (1990). Multiparadigm Perspectives on Theory Building. Academy of Management Review, 15: 584-602. House, R.J., and Aditya, R.N. (1997). The social
scientific study of leadership : quo vadis? Journal of Management, 23: 409-473 Judge, A.T., and Bono, E.B., Ilies, R., and Gerhardt, M.M. (2002). Personality and leadership : a quantitative and qualitative
review . Journal of Applied Psychology, 87: 765-780 Judge, A.T., and Bono, J.E. (1998). Five factor
model of personality and transformational leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85: 751-765
Lim, B.C., and Ployhart, R.E. (2004). Transformational leadership : relations to the five factor model and team performance in typical and maximum contexts. Journal of Applied Psychology,
89:610-621. Locke, E.A., Kirkpatrick, S., Wheeler, J.K., Schneider, J., Niles, K., Goldstein, H.,
Welsh, K., and Dong-Ok, C. (1991). The Essence of Leadership, The Four Keys to Leading Successfully, New York, Lexington Books.
Ogbonna, E., and Harris, L.C. (2000). Leadership style, organizational culture and performance : empirical evidence from UK companies. International Journal of Human Resources Management, 11:766-788.
Smircich, L., and Morgan, G. (1982). Leadership: the management of meaning. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 18:257-273.
Stoker, J.J., Looise, J.C., Fisscher, O.A.M., and de Jong, R.D. (2001). Leadership and innovation : relations between leadership, individual characteristics and the functioning of R&D teams. International
Journal of Human Resources Management, 12:1141-1151.
Yulk1 , G.A. (1989). Managerial leadership: a review of theory and research. Journal of Management, 15:251-289.
Yulk2 , G.A. (1989). Leadership in Organization. Eaglewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall.
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